Geopolitical Constraints (HL IB Geography)
Revision Note
National Controls
What is freedom?
Personal freedom can be thought as being free from constraints or punishments, so long as it does not impact the freedom of others
Personal freedom plays a role in a country's economic development by recognising the dignity of individuals and democracy
Personal freedoms can be affected by government (state) or militia (non-state) controls
The restriction of people's freedom to participate in global interactions include but are not limited to:
Right to vote
Free flow of ideas
Freedom of movement and assembly
The right to equality before the law
Freedom to trade internationally
Freedom of speech and expression
Freedom of the press
Human Freedom Index (HFI) measures the level of political rights and civil liberties in countries around the world on a scale of 0 to 100, where 100 represents more freedom
Countries are then categorised as:
Free
Partly Free
Not Free
Government controls on personal freedoms are justified under the premise of:
National security due to an increase in international terrorism and cyber threats
Cultural or religious security in order to uphold perceived traditional, cultural, or religious values and norms
Political security so that totalitarian and authoritarian regimes can continue their reigns
Government controls can include:
Censoring or altering content deemed inappropriate or threatening
Political repression to reduce opposition and general dissent
Restricting women's rights in the name of tradition or religious interpretation
Case Study
Eritrea is a northeast African country in the Horn of Africa
Eritrea is a militarised authoritarian state with a HFI of 3/100
There have been no national elections since 1993, after gaining independence from Ethiopia
The only political party is the People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ), headed by President Isaias Afwerki
Random arrests are common
National service is compulsory for men and women and is often open-ended
Students completing secondary school are obliged to complete the year in military service
Anyone trying to avoid military service or escape the country have been fired on by soldiers
All independent media was shut down by the government in 2001
There are strict rules on religion, with Eritrea recognising only 4 faiths
The two major religions in Eritrea are Sunni Islam and Eritrean Orthodox Christianity
Evangelical Lutheranism
Catholicism
Followers of other faiths can be arrested, imprisoned and have their property confiscated
Education is heavily regulated
Course content is censored
Research is limited
Universities are closed in favour of small colleges and technical schools
Freedom of speech, expression and private discussion are limited for fear of being informed to the government
Authorities regularly block access to social media and internet
Only 6% of the population own a mobile phone
Just 1% of the population have access to the internet via internet cafes
Public gatherings of more than seven people require a permit or face imprisonment or forced removal
Same-sex relationships are a criminal offence and LGBT+ people have no legal protection from discrimination
Many Eritreans have fled the country to get away from state control, although they are still subject to government surveillance and harassment
Case Study
China's Great Firewall
China’s is an authoritarian regime with an HFI of 9/100
The ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP) keeps tight control over all aspects of life and governance and includes:
State bureaucracy
The media
Internet and social media
Religious practice
Universities
Businesses
The extent of CCP's general secretary Xi Jinping's personal power has not been seen in China for decades
There are no direct or competitive elections for national leaders
The CCP is the only political party
Citizens who have tried to establish independent political parties are nearly all in prison, under house arrest or in exile
The CCP is not accountable to voters and denies the public any meaningful participation in political affairs
The political system is dominated by ethnic Han Chinese men
Women, ethnic and religious minorities and LGBTQ+ people have no real political representation
China has one of the world’s most sophisticated system of censorship, particularly online
State management of communications infrastructure allows them to block websites, restrict and remove domestic apps from smartphones, delete social media posts and ban user accounts
Thousands of websites have been blocked, including:
Major news outlets such as the New York Times, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC),
Social media hubs: YouTube, X, and Facebook
Journalists and bloggers have been detained, disappeared or criminally charged
Fang Bin, who shared information about the COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan was detained
Long prison terms for critical or satirical social media posts against Xi or the CCP
As well as criminal punishment, internet users face account deletions, job dismissals, random detention, and police interrogation over such posts
Facial-recognition software surveillance cameras are installed in public areas and transport
Companies have to store Chinese users’ data under China’s Cybersecurity Law
Communication companies have to get facial scans of new internet or mobile phone users as part of the real-name registration process
Offline monitoring is done through neighbourhood party committees and 'public security volunteers, who are visible during large events
The Counterespionage Law 2023 restricts the spread of information related to national security
However, the details of what are and are not part of national security are not clearly defined
It also allows authorities to inspect electronic equipment and data
Citizens are encouraged to engage in counterespionage activities against their fellow citizens
Individuals are restricted from leaving and entering China
Academic freedom is heavily restricted
Classroom discussions are monitored at every stage of education and includes:
Surveillance cameras in some classrooms
Large-scale recruitment of student informants
Special departments to supervise the political thinking of teaching staff
Militia controls on personal freedoms
Militias, distinct from regular armed forces, exert control over personal freedoms, usually by coercion, force, or leverage
The main reasons for militia control are usually:
Control of territory through imposing their own set of rules and regulations on the local population
Ideological beliefs, particularly those of religious or political beliefs, enforce controls that are aligned with their ideology
Economic interests, particularly illegal trade such as smuggling or drug trafficking, are maintained through controlling personal freedoms
National Trade Restrictions
To protect national interests, some governments introduce national trade restrictions, which control or modify international trade
Protectionism is an economic policy where governments impose selective trade barriers on international trade to protect domestic industries from overseas competition
These barriers include:
Tariffs are imposed on imports, which increases the price of foreign goods, makes the domestic product more competitive
Quotas on the number of imported products ensures that local products maintain a market share
Non-tariff barriers range from strict product standards, complicated licencing procedures, and difficult regulations for foreign companies
Impacts include:
Trade wars, such as those imposed by President Trump on Chinese imports, resulted in China imposing import tariffs on 106 US goods
Consumer price increase because of limited competition
Growth of local industry from limited foreign competition
Resource nationalism
Resource nationalism is when governments decide to take all or some of their natural resources under state ownership, allowing the country to benefit exclusively from the nation's resources
Case Study
Bolivia has the second-largest gas reserves in Latin America but produces only a small amount of oil for domestic use
Concerned over US economic power in the region and the exploitative actions of TNCs in general
Foreign energy companies were told they had 6 months to sign new operating contracts or leave the country
All signed, and this resulted in higher revenues for the government
All foreign energy companies have to deliver all their production to the state-run Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB) for distribution and processing
Overall, Bolivia has taken control of 82% of the oil and gas in the country, leaving the remainder to foreign companies
Bolivia is adopting a socialist model of regional commerce and cooperation as opposed to what it sees as ‘US-backed free trade’
The government is trying to attract foreign direct investment while also giving the state a larger role in managing the economy
Bolivia has been successful, despite the IMF and World Bank warnings, and there is now impressive poverty alleviation and faster economic growth because of the control of Bolivia’s natural resources within the country
Examiner Tip
Just because a country has nationalised its resources, it doesn't mean it has complete control. As in the case of Bolivia, there is some reliance on TNCs to provide expertise and equipment to develop these resources. There is, therefore, a dependency on each other.
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