Government Led Strategies (SL IB Geography)

• Global warming and climate change require an international response because it affects the entire globe
• Responses involve:
  • Mitigation - actions that reduce emissions that contribute to global warming and climate change
  • Adaptation - actions which minimise or prevent the negative impacts of global warming and climate change

Mitigation 

• One form of mitigation is through international agreements:
  • In 1988 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up to assess the 'risks of human-induced climate change
  • This was followed by several international agreements:
• Earth Summit, Rio 1992
  • Set out aims to stabilise greenhouse gas levels 
• Kyoto Protocol 1997
  • Delegates from 150 countries agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
  • It stated that industrialised countries would reduce emissions to below the levels in 1990
  • Developing countries including China and India were exempt from the agreement
  • The USA did not sign up for the treaty
  • Canada withdrew in 2011 stating that without China and USA, the treaty would not work
• Paris Agreement 2015
  • Global agreement to limit global warming to 2^oC (preferably 1.5^oC) above pre-industrial levels
  • The agreement also includes reducing CO₂ emissions by at least 60% by 2050
  • Signed by 196 countries including the USA and China (the USA withdrew in 2020 and later, re-joined in 2021) 
• Conference of the Parties (COP)
  • The United Nations (UN) holds an annual (every year) meeting to discuss climate change.
  • COP26 was held in Glasgow, UK in 2021, COP27 in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt in 2022 and COP28 in Dubai, UAE in 2023
  • All nations agreed to take actions to further reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Adaptation

• These are ways in which people can adapt to the impacts through:
  • Change in agricultural systems
  • Managing water supplies
  • Reducing risks from rising sea levels

Change in agricultural systems

• Agricultural systems will need to adapt to changing weather patterns, different pests and diseases
• Changing crops or the livestock raised to suit the climatic conditions
• More irrigation may be required which will need careful management of water supplies
• Development of drought-resistant crops
• Floating gardens where crops are planted on platforms which rise with the level of water

Managing water supplies

• Reducing demand through the use of water-efficient appliances and devices (shower heads, dual flush toilets)
• Increasing supply through desalinisation
• Water storage facilities 
• Improved irrigation systems which waste/use less water

Reducing risks from rising sea levels

• Construction of sea walls as in the Maldives
• Mangrove forest restoration which protects the land from coastal flooding
• Raised homes on stilts to allow waters to flow underneath
• Construction of artificial islands up to 3m high
• Flood barriers such as the Thames Barrier in London

• Carbon offsetting is about reducing, avoiding or removing CO₂ emissions in one part of the world to compensate for emissions in another
• Carbon offset schemes allow for investments in environmental projects around the world so that individuals or companies can balance their own carbon footprints
• The projects are usually based in LICs and are designed to reduce future emissions
• Critics argue that carbon offsetting does not change the behaviour of individuals or companies but acts as a 'greenwashing' substitute for making direct emission cuts 

Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS)

• This is the use of technology to capture, remove and store CO₂ from industrial facilities, power plants, and other large-scale sources 
• There are two methods:
  • Captured at the site - CO₂ is captured before atmospheric release, compressed and stored underground or utilised for industrial purposes
  • There are 3 methods to remove or ‘scrub’ CO₂:
    • Pre-combustion - CO₂ is scrubbed before burning the fossil fuel
    • Post-combustion -  CO₂ is removed after burning the fossil fuel. CO₂ is captured (‘scrubbed’) from the exhaust (or ‘flue’) gases
    • Oxyfuel combustion - fossil fuel is burned in oxygen instead of air and the exhaust gas are mainly CO₂ and water vapour. The water vapour is condensed and the remaining CO₂ (which is almost pure) is then transported and stored
  • Direct air carbon capture (DASC) - CO₂ is allowed to enter the atmosphere, but is then captured using specially designed removal processes
    • A large fan draws air from the atmosphere, through a carbon-capturing filter, which is then heated to release CO₂ which is either stored or reused
• Captured carbon can be used to manufacture fuels, make concrete building materials, and carbonate (fizzy) soft drinks
• This is an expensive process and is not yet economically viable
• It is unknown whether CO₂ can be stored long term

Carbon taxes

• This is a tax paid by businesses and industries that produce excessive GHG emissions through burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas)
• The tax is designed to encourage businesses to move to renewal energy by making fossil fuels more expensive and encouraging companies to become more energy-efficient, and save money
• 35 countries to date have implemented the tax, although the USA (as one of the largest emitters) has no carbon taxes

Carbon trading

• This is a way of monetising GHG emissions through the buying and selling of 'credits or permits', which allow the owner to emit a certain amount of GHGs
• The credits and trading are agreed between governments with the aim of gradually reducing overall emissions and mitigating their contribution to global warming and climate change
• In Europe, carbon credits/permits are traded through the Emissions Trading System (ETS)
• Industries that exceed the limits set, must buy permits from others that have not 
• Carbon trading has led to carbon accountability which measures the impact made by governments, companies, and individuals

• Technology and geoengineering are large scale schemes that aim to alter natural processes
  • Using sulphate aerosols in the air could cool the planet by reducing insolation
  • Using giant mirrors in space to deflect more sunlight back into space 
  • Seeding clouds to reflect more rays into space
• In principle, these ideas work, but practically, they are unworkable and far too expensive
• More accessible strategies include:
  • Reforesting large areas of land to absorb more carbon
  • Painting rooftops white to be more reflective
  • Fertilising the ocean with nitrogen, iron, and phosphorus to grow more plankton and absorb more carbon

Geo-engineering schemes