Availability & Consumption of Resources (SL IB Geography)

Earth's water 

• Freshwater makes up just 2.5% of all Earth's water
• Approximately 1.6% of the freshwater is locked away:
• The cryosphere holds 68.6% of freshwater as ice
• The remaining 30.1% is groundwater 
• In total, just 0.9% of the Earth's total freshwater is accessible to humans 

Availability of freshwater

Global availability of freshwater

• Water is unevenly distributed around the globe because of physical and human factors

Physical and Human Factors Affecting Global Water Distribution

Physical Factors	Human Factors
The uneven spread of land to sea Geology, which enable aquifers to form Climatic differences: temperature and rate of precipitation Altitude and latitude—ice and glaciers Wetlands, lakes and river size Soil type: groundwater store	Level of economic development Rate of abstraction Use of water Embedded water Population numbers Affordability Contaminated water

• This means that people's access to water is uneven and dependent on where they live

Global availability of freshwater

Global availability of freshwater

• Global climate differences create varying amounts of groundwater, surface water, and precipitation levels
• Availability may also be affected by population levels and wealth
• The distribution of the human population does not match the distribution of water
  • This creates areas that do not have adequate local water supplies

Patterns and trends

• Since 2000, 1.8 billion people have gained access to basic drinking water services
• Inequalities in access remain

Trends in global access to water

• According to the World Bank, inequality in access to water is the greatest threat to:
  • Economic progress
  • The eradication of poverty
  • Sustainable development

• It is the poorest and most vulnerable that suffer the most

Increasing demand for water

• Demand for safe water is increasing due to:
  • Economic development
  • Population growth
  • Increased use of renewable energy
• At present, HICs have some of the highest levels of consumption due to:
  • Modern appliances
  • Swimming pools
  • Internal bathrooms
  • Production of food and manufactured goods
• MICs are increasing their consumption and demand for water; much of this increase is due to industrialisation 
• LICs have the smallest water footprint

Agriculture

• Agricultural production of food, fibres, livestock and industrial crops accounts for 70% of global groundwater withdrawals
  • This figure is even higher in arid and semi-arid regions
• By 2050, there will be an estimated 50% increase in demand for food, adding extra stress on groundwater abstraction
• Much of this growth will be in LICs, which already experience water stress

Industry

• Approximately 17% of total water withdrawals are used for industrial purposes
• Freshwater use in industry includes:
  • Dilution
  • Steam generation
  • Washing and cooling of manufacturing equipment and goods
• Industrial water is also used as a cooling agent for energy generation in fossil fuel and nuclear power plants (hydropower generation is not included in this category), or as wastewater from certain industrial processes
• At over 300 billion m³, the U.S. is the largest consumer of industrial water
• China is the second largest consumer at 140 billion m³
• Other regions use approximately one billion m³ of industrial water per year, with Sub-Saharan Africa and some parts of South Asia using less than 500 million m³ of industrial water per year

Domestic 

• The remaining 13% is used for domestic, household or public services (cooking, cleaning, washing and drinking)
  
  • The three countries with the highest domestic use of water are China, USA and India

Domestic use of water in China, USA and India

• Future demands for freshwater include:
• Population growth
• Growth of middle class - affluence leads to increased water consumption
• Growth in tourism and leisure
• Growth in urbanisation requires investment in water and sanitation infrastructure
• Climate change and increased climatic variability of precipitation rates

Embedded, hidden or virtual water

• This refers to water transported from one place to another through the export of foods, flowers, manufactured products, drinks, etc. 
• It allows countries to reduce their water consumption by importing goods
• However, it can also lead to further water stress through exporting goods
• The Ica Valley is in the dry, coastal region of Peru and is one of the few places in the world, where high-quality asparagus can grow all year round
• Over 317 million cubic metres of water is needed from the aquifer to grow the exported asparagus
• This has reduced available water in the aquifer by over 60% and at its current rate, the aquifer will run dry within the next 20 years

• The world population is now over 8 billion people
• The growth of population leads to an increasing demand for food
• It is estimated by the Food and Agriculture Organisation that 60% more food will be needed to feed the world population by 2050
• Development leads to nutrition transition, which also increases consumption of food
  • The lower calorie intake in many countries in Africa is due to:
    • Less food being available
    • Lower meat consumption
  • In HICs and increasingly in emerging countries, the high calorie intake is the result of increasing meat intake and more 'fast food'
    • Meat consumption in Vietnam increased from 28.6kg per person (2002) to 63.34kg per person (2020)
  • The growth of the new global middle class (NGMC) means that people have more disposable income 
  • People are able to afford a more varied diet, which increases the consumption of imported foods
• Increased calorie intake has also led to a growth in obesity and diet related diseases

Global calorie intake per person

What are the challenges of nutrient transition?

• The increase in meat consumption and changes in diet resulting from nutrition transition have a number of impacts
• Livestock farming:
  • Increases the demand for animal feed

Feed required to produce 1kg of food

• • Increases pressure on water supplies
  • Leads to an increase in methane production, contributing to climate change
  • Clearance of land for grazing and crop production increases deforestation

The global demand for energy

• The global demand for energy has increased significantly since the 1950s
• Energy consumption can be measured in several ways, including:
  • Kilograms or tonnes of oil equivalent per year (kgoe/yr)
  • Terawatt hours (TWh) or Megawatt hours (MWh)
  • Gigajoules (GJ/yr) or exajoules per year (EJ/yr)
• It is predicted that energy demand will increase by nearly 50% by 2050

Global energy demand

What are the causes of the increase in energy consumption?

• An increasing global population; the more people there are, the higher the demand for energy
• The growth of the NGMC means that people have more devices, appliances and vehicles which use energy
  • The increasing availability of electricity means people in LICs are moving away from reliance on fuelwood for heating and cooking
• Development leads to more industries, which consume increasing amounts of energy

What is energy mix?

• Each country has a unique energy mix to meet their energy demand

Comparison of the energy mix in France and USA

• The primary energy sources that are used to generate electricity include:
  • Non-renewable fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas
  • Renewable energy sources such as wind, geothermal, hydroelectricity and solar
  • Recyclable fuels such as nuclear energy, biomass and general waste
• Each country's energy mix will vary as a result of several factors
• The energy mix of the USA is also significantly different from that of France 
  • The USA only has 10% coming from renewable energy and 8% from nuclear 
  • France has 10% from renewables and 41% from nuclear energy
• France relies on 46% of its energy supplies being imported, as all of its natural gas and oil are imported along with the uranium required for its nuclear power
• The USA only imports around 15%
• Countries in Asia, including China and Indonesia, rely heavily on non-renewables, particularly coal, because it is:
  • Readily available 
  • Cheaper than other energy sources

Factors Affecting the Energy Mix

Factor	Impact on the energy mix
Level of development	Developing countries usually use natural resources, such as firewood for cooking Emerging countries will see a rise in oil use as transport and car ownership increases As countries develop, they tend to start using more gas and nuclear power as technology advances
Environment	Concerns about climate change have led increasing numbers of countries to reduce the use of fossil fuels
Safety	Incidents such as the nuclear accidents at Chernobyl and Fukushima mean people have concerns about the use of nuclear fuel
Economic	The cost of energy sources can affect the choices governments make
Technology	Some countries have greater access to technology Improvements in technology have decreased the cost of renewable energy production
Political	The conflict between Russia and Ukraine has encouraged European countries to reduce their reliance on Russian gas supplies
Physical	Some countries have varying amounts of non-renewable energy sources, which impacts how much of these resources they use The geographical location also affects wind speeds, sunlight availability, water access for HEP, tidal and wave power

• It is important for countries to have a balance between domestic energy sources and imported energy sources to ensure energy security

Changing importance of energy sources

Decreasing use of hydrocarbons

• Hydrocarbons, also known as non-renewable fossil fuels, are becoming less popular as energy sources due to concerns about the environment 
  • Climate change
  • Air pollution
  • Destruction of habitats during mining and drilling
• Hydrocarbons are finite and, at some point, will run out
• Some countries have invested in fracking to increase the supplies of hydrocarbons

Increasing use of renewable energy

• Renewable energy is increasingly important in the global energy mix
• Countries want to reduce their reliance on imports of non-renewable energy sources and improve their energy security
• Reduction in the cost of renewable energy sources
• Advances in technology mean that renewable energy is more efficient
• Renewable energy has less impact on the environment

Changes in nuclear energy

• Nuclear energy uses nuclear fission to generate electricity
• The process does not produce greenhouse gases
• Some countries, such as Germany, are reducing the use of nuclear power due to concerns regarding:
  • Safety
  • Storage of nuclear waste
• Other countries, such as France, rely on nuclear power for a large portion of their energy production
• Many countries are researching and investing in nuclear fusion this would:
  • Produce significantly lower amounts of waste
  • Eliminate the risk of nuclear accidents