Flashbulb Memory: The Effect of Emotion on Cognition
What is a flashbulb memory?
- A flashbulb memory (FBM) was proposed by Brown & Kulik (1977) as a special sort of emotional memory that is triggered by events that stand out due to their shocking, unexpected, dramatic or unusual nature
- FBMs are thought to be more vivid, detailed, long-lasting and meaningful than everyday memories, though some research casts doubt as to their reliability and accuracy
- FBMs may be formed from episodic memories of moments in a person’s life e.g. a winning a race or a traumatic experience such as being involved in an accident or disaster
- FBMs may also be formed when someone witnesses or hears about a significant global event such as an assassination or terrorist attack on TV or other media: the FBM is formed in the moment that you first learned about the event either directly or indirectly
- Brown & Kulik (1977) suggested that FBMs are so emotionally important to someone that they are captured like a photograph (hence the ‘flashbulb’ element) and laid down in the long-term memory for a very long time, possibly forever
- Brown & Kulik (1977) suggested that FBMs may be controlled by a specific neural mechanism located in the limbic system of the brain, a region which regulates emotional responses and which contains the amygdala
- FBM research uses self-report methods to collect data as this is the only way in which to obtain someone’s first-hand account of where they were, what they were doing, who they were with etc. when they first learned of the event
- FBM researchers have to be ready to run their research at a moment’s notice as they tend to use global, unexpected events as the basis for their study e.g. the sudden death of a prominent figure; a natural disaster; a terrorist attack: they need to obtain a sample quickly and collect their data within a short time-frame, while the memory is still fresh in their participants’ minds
Why is there some disagreement as to the accuracy of flashbulb memories?
- Since Brown & Kulik’s (1977) original research, there have been subsequent studies which highlight the lack of accuracy and reliability of FBMs
- Some notable studies have found that FBMs do not fare well over time: they become distorted, prone to re-interpretation and are affected by information after the event e.g. discussing the event with others, watching and reading media reports of the event
- Research into significant global events such as the death of Princess Diana, 9/11, the trial of O.J. Simpson and the Challenger space shuttle explosion have revealed that FBMs become eroded over time, with details being lost or false details inserted into the memory (the research compares memory of the event at different time points e.g. immediately after, 3 months after, 6 months after etc.)
- An interesting finding which is common to many FBM studies is that people’s confidence in the accuracy of their FBMs is much higher than the accuracy of their FBMs which is probably due to the vivid and emotional nature of such memories
The Challenger space shuttle tragedy was used in research which challenged the accuracy of flashbulb memories.
Which research studies investigate flashbulb memories?
- Brown & Kulik (1977) – FBMs are thought to be more vivid, accurate and long-lasting than everyday memories
- Talarico & Rubin (2003) – FBMs are not accurate over time but people’s confidence in their accuracy is high
Brown & Kulik (1977) and Talarico & Rubin (2003) are available as separate Key Studies – just navigate the Emotion and Cognition section of this topic to find them (Two Key Studies of the Effect of Emotion on Cognition)
Exam Tip
Brown & Kulik (1977) and Talarico & Rubin (2003) are available as separate Key Studies – just navigate the Emotion and Cognition section of this topic to find them (Two Key Studies of the Effect of Emotion on Cognition)
Worked example
Extended Response Question (ERQ) - 22 marks
Discuss ethical considerations relevant research into emotion and cognition. [22]
Do remember that you could be asked ‘generic’ questions in an exam i.e. on research methods or ethical considerations. It is important to practise these questions as much as the content-based questions.
Here is an example of how to tackle this sort of question in the following paragraph taken from a longer essay:
Researchers who investigate emotion and cognition, should be particularly mindful to avoid causing psychological harm to their participants. Some flashbulb memories are by their nature distressing, being based on shocking, often violent events, and therefore asking participants to recall their memory of these events could lead to psychological harm. For example, just one day after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, Talarico & Rubin (2003) interviewed university students and recorded their memory of first hearing about the tragedy. They were then interviewed again 1, 6, or 32 weeks later. This means that the participants were interviewed about this shocking event the day after it happened and again about a week later when the event would have been still very much on their minds.
Even though these participants had given informed consent to the interviews, they would not have been able to predict their own emotional responses to the memories therefore the researchers would have to consider this and to put in place appropriate strategies to protect them from harm.