Two Key Studies of Enculturation & Acculturation: Basu et al. (2017) & Inman et al. (2007)

Key Study: Basu et al. (2017)

Aim: To investigate enculturation in adolescents and their parents towards gender-appropriate behaviour

Participants:

Adolescents aged 11-13 years and their parents
One sample was from a highly socially and economically disadvantaged area of Delhi, India (16 males, 15 females);
The other sample was from a low-income, disadvantaged area of Shanghai, China (17 males, 17 females)
The parents of the adolescents comprised a separate sample (24 from Delhi, 34 from Shanghai)
Delhi parents were younger (25-44 years) than the Shanghai parents (35-54 years)
40% of the Delhi parents had no formal education, whereas 75% of the Shanghai parents had at least some level of formal education

Procedure:

Narrative interviews (an open style of interviewing in which no pre-prepared questions are used) were conducted with the adolescents and their parents separately
The topic being discussed was ‘gender socialisation’ with discussions exploring ideas as to how each gender should dress, behave, prepare for adulthood, and so on

Results: The researchers used thematic analysis which generated a range of themes, some of which were:

Girls, particularly in Delhi, should be covered up, and not wear jeans, just long skirts and should behave in a ‘ladylike’ way otherwise they would be punished. Boys could wear what they liked and were encouraged to be brave and tough
In Shanghai the parents put a lot of emphasis on ‘proper’ demeanour for girls such as sitting with an upright posture, being calm, gentle, and quiet: not behaving like this would bring dishonour on her family. Although boys were not faced with such strictures, they were expected to be polite and considerate towards girls
Delhi parents were more focused on girls preparing for life as a wife and mother whereas the Shanghai parents had expectations of career success for both boys and girls
There were huge restrictions in both countries regarding male-female interaction, with most families expressly forbidding it and threatening punishment even for the mildest of interactions, such as looking at a member of the opposite sex
Mothers emerged as the most influential and dominant figure in the gender socialisation process, with other significant adults (such as teachers and older siblings) also playing a role
Children from both countries reported that punishments such as beatings and shaming in front of friends were used without hesitation for perceived or actual rule violations, particularly those regarding male-female interactions

Conclusion: Some cultures appear to enculturate traditional gendered behaviour which may have a negative impact on children e.g. the use of corporal punishment (physical punishment) for perceived rule violations
The researchers conclude that some cultures adhere to deeply entrenched gendered behaviours and rules which appear to be unequal e.g. boys being given more freedom than girls

Evaluation of Basu et al. (2017)

Strengths

The use of narrative interviews means that this research collected a good amount of qualitative data which is rich, in-depth and insightful i.e. it has good explanatory power
Interviewing both the adolescents and their parents enabled the researchers to compare the extent of enculturation across generations

Weaknesses

Narrative interviews can sometimes be derailed and veer off-topic if the participant wishes to talk at length on some unrelated matter
The sample is not representative e.g. more affluent areas of the two cities may well have reported less traditional attitudes towards gender socialisation

Key terms:

Acculturation
Gender socialisation
Narrative interviews

Key Study: Inman et al. (2007)

Aim: To investigate ethnic identity in first-generation Indian Hindu parents living in the USA

Participants:

16 first-generation Indian Hindu parents (8 female; 8 male) who had moved to the USA in the late 1960s/early 1970s
The parents had all been over 20 years old when they had emigrated
Both purposive and snowball sampling methods were used to obtain the sample who were all fluent in English

Procedure:

Prior to the interview, participants were asked to classify themselves as either ‘very Indian/somewhat Indian/bicultural/somewhat American/very American’
They were asked to elaborate on this description of themselves in the interview
Semi-structured interviews were then conducted

Results: After analysing the transcripts the researchers drew up themes and categories which had emerged from the data:

Ethnic identity: The two most common self-categorisations (obtained with the question used prior to the interviews) were ‘very Indian’ whilst also feeling ‘bicultural’ i.e Berry’s idea that integration is the most successful acculturative strategy is supported in the data
Factors contributing to ethnic identity retention: Engagement in cultural celebrations and activities; maintaining traditional values and upbringing; family ties; and the need for social support all emerged as typical categories for both mothers and fathers
Their children’s bicultural experiences: Fathers typically and mothers generally noted the bicultural influence and the difficulties of maintaining cultural continuity, though being bicultural was generally seen by both groups of parents as being a strength
Challenges: The main challenges were seen as limited family and community guidance; obstacles presented by Western culture, such as inflexible work schedules and a lack of Indian cultural centres and schools; a lack of specific cultural knowledge; an inability to apply their own experience when raising their children; and there was a fear of intermarriage that might create a distance between parents and children and grandchildren

Conclusion: First-generation immigrant parents are able to acculturate successfully but this is not always without its problems and difficulties

Evaluation of Inman et al. (2007)